Passover: From Biblical Times to Today
A Historical Narrative
Jeff A. Friedlander


Passover at the Exodus and in the Wilderness
The first Passover was observed in Egypt on the night of the Israelites’ liberation, as described in Exodus 12. The Israelites were commanded to sacrifice a lamb, place its blood on their doorposts, eat the meal in haste, and prepare the bread without yeast, for it would not have time to rise before they would have to leave. The blood on the doorposts would alert the angel of death to pass over the house because the family had provided a sacrifice of a pure lamb in place of the firstborn child. This was by G-d’s command.

The doctrine of substitutionary sacrifice was well established, as Abraham had learned when a ram provided by G-d replaced his son. (Gen. 22) Even though G-d ordered the sacrifice of Isaac, He never planned to allow a human sacrifice until He (G-d) was willing to become human and be the sacrifice.

This would be the only time in the annual Passover celebration when the meal was eaten in haste, the lambs blood was applied to the doorpost, and the people burned what was not eaten and left their homes the next day.

When the Bible says in Exodus to do this command as a perpetual celebration, it is understood that observing this celebration has some requirements and other components that can be customized to the age, time, and group.

Following the Exodus, the next recorded Passover occurred in the wilderness at Mount Sinai (Numbers 9:1-5). This was the first instance of Passover being commemorated as an annual event. However, those who could not participate in the first month due to ritual impurity, they were permitted to observe it one month later in what became known as Pesach Sheni (Second Passover). The account in Numbers explains that the person is to celebrate the Passover with all its decrees or statutes ( The Hebrew is חֻקָּה huqqua (rites) and means rituals that are part of the celebration), and according to the ordinance or customs, (Hebrew 2 word is מִשְׁפָּט mishpat). The scripture acknowledges that the people would celebrate the passover with customs and rituals.

Some debates around this holiday concern what we should do to honor and celebrate it. As we will see, the celebration has changed several times over the centuries for various reasons.

At the minimum, three items were to be used in observing Passover: Lamb, Matzah, and Bitter Herbs. However, the specific method in which to use these items is not provided. Freedom of expression was permitted. There is also no command that only those three items could be used to remember the Passover. Adding other items to the celebration is permitted.

Some would argue that adding practices, customs, and traditions to scripture is opposes the word of G-d. They typically base their argument on Deuteronomy 13:1 and 31:9. (See our article on Traditions and Customs for more details about this.)

The Hebrew words here indicate that the people from the original Passover and those now in the second year in the wilderness having a Passover celebration knew the rites, customs, and ways they would celebrate it. Note that there were no doorposts to put the blood on in the wilderness unless one considers the tent entrance a doorpost.

This passage in Numbers also allows for even more flexibility. If a person is unclean or far from the Tabernacle and future temple, he can celebrate the Passover in the second month. The rules are the same: Matzot, bitter Herbs, and lamb to be eaten, and do not break the lamb's bones. Everything else is customized to the family or group.

Passover in the Land of Canaan
After the Israelites entered Canaan, Passover was celebrated in Gilgal (Joshua 5:10-12). This is a powerful picture of Passover. First, Joshua circumcised each of the men. The men had been born in the wilderness and were not circumcised “along the way”. Johsua, under instruction from the LORD, is showing the sign of 3 the covenant G-d made with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. These people will be separated, and different practices and signs set them apart.

Then, they celebrate Passover on the evening of the 14th of Abib1. Here, they have the Tabernacle set up just as they did in the wilderness. The slaughter of the lambs is still centered around the Tabernacle, as it was in the wilderness, rather than in every home like the first Passover of the Exodus. The following day, they ate the produce of the land, matzah, and roasted grain. Manna was no longer provided. (Joshua 5:11-12)

A Falling Away and A Changing Passover
The celebration continued throughout the period of the Judges and early monarchy (13th-10th Century), though biblical texts suggest that observance may have been inconsistent at times. It is important to note that Passover practices and customs varied during this time. The Israelites were a confederation of tribes without a centralized government. The book of Judges describes cycles of sin, foreign oppression, deliverance by Judges, and certain lapses in all religious practices.

The Tabernacle was stationed in different locations throughout the centuries. Notably, it is in Shiloh (Joshua 18:1 and 1 Samuel 1:3). Most likely, some Israelites would make the pilgrimage to the location of the Tabernacle to observe Passover; however, the tribes were scattered over a large geography, and many may have observed it locally. The Book of Judges repeatedly states, “In those days, there was no king in Israel; everyone did what was right in his own eyes” (Judges 21:25). This suggests that during the time of the judges, it is possible and even likely that many fell away from observing Passover. There are no direct biblical references to Passover celebrations during this period.
Worship became centralized, including Passover. (circa. 10th - 6th century BCE)

King Saul (c.1050 BCE) became the first King of Israel. The government and religious practices became more centralized. However, Saul's reign was marked by war and instability; again, we do not have any direct record of Passover being widely celebrated during his time.

King David (circa.1010-970 BCE), brings the Ark of the Covenant (2 Samuel 6), to Jerusalem and establishes it as the capital and center of religious practice and governance. Unity is in the nation. Although there are no explicit mentions of Passover during David's reign, his well-established devotion to G-d, restoration of proper worship, desire to build a temple, organizing the priesthood, and the Levitical roles (1 Chronicles 15-16) would suggest he would have encouraged Passover observance among the people.

King Solomon (circa. 960 BCE, 1 Kings 6-8), David’s son, built the first temple in Jerusalem. This was a significant change for the people of Israel and greatly affected the celebration of Passover. The sacrificial aspect of the holiday became centralized, as the Torah commanded that the Passover offering be brought to the place where God’s name dwelled:

Deuteronomy 16:5-6;
5 You may not sacrifice the Passover offering within any of your gates that Adonai your God is giving you. 6 Rather, at the place Adonai your God chooses to make His Name dwell, there you will sacrifice the Passover offering in the evening at sunset—the time of your coming out from Egypt.

This command is one of the reasons why, later in the diaspora in the absence of the temple, a shank bone or other type of symbol is used to represent the lamb.

The Israelites traveled to Jerusalem to offer their Paschal lamb at the Temple. The practice became more structured and centralized. Deuteronomy 16:16 commands that all males appear before G-d at the central sanctuary for three festivals: Passover, Shavuot, and Sukkot. The large number of Israelites that traveled to the Temple in Jerusalem became the norm. This formal, centralized Passover observance would continue until the destruction of the Temple in 586 BCE. However, there were times during the first and second temple periods when the Passover was not celebrated due to persecution or disobedience.

Between King Solomon (970-930 BCE) and King Josiah (640-609 BCE), Israel fell into idolatry, political turmoil, and foreign influence. The United Kingdom of Israel was split into two kingdoms, the northern kingdom (Israel / Ephraim from 930-722 BCE) and the southern kingdom (Judah 930-586 BCE, with Judah returning to Jerusalem 70 years after exile to Babylon).

During these centuries, the Northern kingdom rejected Jerusalem-based worship and set up temple shrines in the cities of Bethel and Dan (1 Kings 12:26-33). Alternative practices were added, including a mix of Canaanite influences. By the 9th century BCE, the time of King Ahab and Queen Jezebel, Baal worship had largely replaced the Biblical festivals and customs. In 722 BCE, G-d sent Assyria to conquer the northern kingdom and put the people in exile. This ended the Passover observance for those citizens as they were exiled throughout the 120 provinces of the Assyrian Kingdom.

In the Southern kingdom, there was a mix of righteous and wicked kings, which led to a fluctuation in the observance of Passover. There were good kings such as Jehoshaphat (870-849 BCE) and Hezekiah (715-686 BCE), who restored proper worship and would have encouraged the observance of the Biblical feasts, including Passover. However, during the reigns of kings such as Manasseh (697-642 BCE) and Amon (642-640 BCE), idolatry and foreign cults dominated the people, and the Passover was forgotten.

Then G-d sent a good king. Josiah (640 BCE) became the great reformer. The Temple had been in disrepair, and many of the Israelites or Judahites had abandoned the Torah and its call to worship, festivals, and, of course, that would include Passover. In 622 BCE, during Temple renovations, the Book of the Law was discovered (2 Kings 22:8-11). Josiah reads this and is shocked to realize how far the people have strayed. He goes to work and reinstates the Torah-based worship and Passover nationally for the first time in generations. The Bible states that this was the greatest Passover since the time of the Judges (2 Kings 23:22). This indicates that although there is no direct reference, the people may have been celebrating Passover during the time of the Judges.

His reforms emphasized centralized worship in Jerusalem, marking a shift from local observances (2 Chronicles 35:1-19).

Although this reform and temple restoration was amazing, it did not last. The people turned from G-d again, and G-d sent the Babylonians to conquer and exile them. Many were removed to Babylon for 70 years, and the temple was destroyed. It is safe to say that Passover was not observed during this period of exile. Once the Jewish people were allowed to return to Jerusalem, they rebuilt the temple. It should be noted that Persia conquered Babylon, and the stage is set for all the Jewish people of Babylon and Persia to go back to Israel. However, many Jewish people chose to stay in Persia and Babylon. Passover observance will be allowed in those locations, as will other religious practices during conciliatory cooperation between the kings and the Jewish people. In Jerusalem and throughout Israel, the rebuilt temple signifies a change back to a centralized celebration of the pilgrimage festivals, Passover, Shavuot, and Sukkot.

The Post-Exilic and Second Temple period runs from the 6th century BCE to 70 CE.

The rebuilt Second Temple (completed in 516 BCE) again became the focal point for Passover. Pilgrimages to Jerusalem remained an essential part of the festival, with thousands of Jewish people bringing their offerings to the Temple.

During this time, as mentioned, there were large numbers of Jewish communities in the diaspora. The 4th – 1st century BCE is known as the Hellenistic and Roman periods. The Jewish communities in the diaspora observed Passover as best they could without Temple sacrifices, focusing instead on storytelling, communal meals, and symbolic foods. This would set the stage for customs arising after the Temple's destruction in 70 CE.

Passover remained a key pilgrimage festival during Yeshua's time (1st century CE). The Gospels mention Yeshua and his disciples celebrating Passover on at least two occasions, and scholars debate a possible third. (John 2:13,23, John 6:4, John 11:55; 12:1, Matthew 26:17-30, Mark 14:12-21, Luke 22:7-20,)
After the Temple was destroyed and the Jewish people were persecuted and dispersed throughout many lands, the observance of Passover underwent a significant shift.

Post-Temple Destruction (70 CE- Middle Ages)
From 70 CE through the Middle Ages, the Jewish people could no longer observe the Passover with sacrifices. The rabbinic leaders, possibly taking the lead from the Jewish communities of the diaspora in Persia, Babylon, Assyria, and other locations, developed an observance based on symbolic foods, storytelling, and creating a Passover Seder. Seder means order and thus helps keep unity among Jewish people worldwide as each community and family tells the story annually with certain symbols.

These practices were formalized in the Mishnah (c. 200 CE) and later in the Talmud (4th-6th centuries CE). During this time, the seder plate was developed and had symbolic elements of matzah (unleavened bread), maror (bitter herbs), charoset (symbolizing mortar and sweetness of G-d in the midst of difficulty), a roasted shank bone (in place of the lamb). These elements are used in traditional settings on the 14th day of the first month to retell the story of Passover to the next generation. The matzah and the maror are the required elements from the Torah; the lamb bone is a symbol, while some communities still roast and eat lamb at their celebrations.

Some have argued that having a shank bone conflicts with the rule not to break the bone of the paschal lamb. The rabbis would never have a broken bone to represent the lamb as they know the Torah states not to break a bone. A shank bone used on Passover tables in traditional Jewish and Messianic Jewish seders is an unbroken full bone. This is in line with keeping the commandments.
The disciples of Messiah Yeshua note understand that not a bone of Yeshua was broken. Affirming Yeshua’s claim that He was the Passover lamb.
During the Middle Ages, Passover traditions continued evolving, incorporating questions and answers (e.g., the "Four Questions"), songs like "Dayenu," and specific customs based on regional practices (Sephardic vs. Ashkenazi traditions).

Passover Observance In Current Times
With the rise of the Enlightenment (18th-19th centuries) and Jewish emancipation in Europe, some Jewish communities modernized or abbreviated the Seder.

Meanwhile, the full Seder ritual remained intact in Orthodox and traditional communities.

The Zionist movement (late 19th to early 20th century) infused Passover with nationalistic themes, emphasizing freedom and Jewish self-determination.

Today, Passover is observed in various ways, from strictly traditional Seders to secular or interfaith adaptations. The core themes of freedom, redemption, and historical memory remain central, demonstrating the festival’s ability to adapt across generations while retaining its fundamental message.

Christian and Messianic Jewish practices incorporate the connection of the Passover of Exodus to Yeshua. The Exodus Passover foreshadows that G-d would send a Passover lamb who would be more than blood, notifying the angel of death to pass over a specific house. The lamb's blood would be pure blood that could atone for the world's sins. This atonement is the main point that Yeshua made as he celebrated his last supper with his disciples. He emphasized that the broken body he would receive and the blood that would be spilled were to be a reminder of the new covenant he was making. One which they could enter through the Passover lamb’s sacrifice.

G-d does not do anything by accident or haphazardly. It is not a coincidence that Yeshua was crucified on Passover at the same time the High Priest was sacrificing the lambs at the Temple. Nor should it be lost on the observer that three days later, on First Fruits, Yeshua was seen as alive. Over the next 40 days, he will be seen by over 500 people. At the festival of Shavuot, Joel's prophecy would come to pass, and the Holy Spirit would begin to be poured out on all flesh (Joel 3:1-2).

Today is the day of salvation, and as a follower of Yeshua, it is a day to remember the Passover and pass it on to the next generation.

Footnote
1. Abib: In Hebrew אָּבִיב . from an unused root (meaning to be tender); green, i.e. a young ear of grain; hence, the name of the month Abib (Strongs). The months in Hebrew were originally called by numbers, and then names were added. Abib was used to indicate agriculture and was the first month of the year.